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he dawn of
the Epigonoi era [1] (280-30 BC) has reserved a frightening
event that shocked Greece. A multitudinous horde of barbarian
Gauls has carried out a large scale raid are about to wholesale looting,
but and the long-term permanent establishment. It was an obvious threat to
Hellenism, who had to see before something similar from the invasion of the
Persians of Xerxes in 480 BC. Indeed, the historical circumstance was even more
difficult, as the Greeks were already following a downward path, completely opposite from the bloom of values of the
Classical age. However, they
found the vigor and the bravery to confront the wild Gauls, in the
eminently defensive position of the Greeks, the Thermopylae.
General
situation - First
contacts between Greeks and Gauls
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lready from the 4th BC century, the northern Balkans were colonized by the Celts, such as Greeks used to call these people. It was a
multitudinous nation, actually a medley of tribes that soon was
forced to seek new lands for settlement. As people they were warlike. A first contact with them was made by Alexander the Great through diplomacy. The Celts
fearing his power agreed for a peaceful adjacency, even for military collaboration if needed, as long as he was campaigning in Asia. Thus initially
they raided against Illyrian and Thracian
tribes (Pausanias CH.19.5) without yet risking a
major conflict with the more capable in combat, Greeks. But the death
of Alexander and the repeated conflicts that were plagued Greece in the
next years, dispelled this “wolf-friendship” (insincere friendship) and
sharpened the Celtic mood of raiding Greek lands.
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| Gaul leader |
Gathering huge forces of infantry and cavalry, the Celts were divided into three groups. The first, led
by Cerethrius will raided against the Triballi (in the territory of modern Bulgaria), the second
group with leaders Brennus and Acichorius aimed the ancient Paionia (now
Skopje) and the third group with Bolgius would raid the Illyrians and
Macedonians. (Pausanias CH.19.7, Ioustinos. X.)
The mainland Greece in that period was significantly weakened. The continuous conflicts
of the Successors
had caused extensive material catastrophes and they were depriving many capable men from the
defense of the motherland
that difficult time. The great leaders were missing, while
those who there were, they were absent for various reasons (Pyrrhus of Epirus was campaigning in Italy and
Antigonus Gonatas was trying to recover the Macedonian throne). The king of Macedon
Ptolemy Keraunos would try first to check
the gallic expansion.
Conflict with the Macedonian Kingdom
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pproaching Macedonia from the west, Bolgius already had spread the terror. Ptolemy, who
snootily and arrogantly rejected the proposed help of Dardanians and Bolgius's requirement to pay tax to avoid attack, prepared his army. Despite the incitements of his generals, he marched directly against the invaders
with insufficient forces. In the fierce battle which followed[2] Ptolemy charged the Gauls, but he suffered many injuries,
while the elephant who was riding collapsed to the ground, dragging him in
the fall. The Gauls arrested him still alive, beheaded him and rambled his head, nailed to a spear. On this sight, the Macedonian
army scattered and those who avoided death were captured. (Ioustinos. CCT)
The absolute chaos dispersed in Macedonia as well as the raiders sluiced out undisturbed looting the countryside. Only the
walled cities avoided destruction, as well as the barbarians had any knowledge of battering art. Meleagros,
Ptolemy's brother, came to the throne but was deposed after two months, either
account of incapacity, either because of his relationship with the pernicious
Ptolemy. The kingship was assigned to Antipater, but nor he managed to reverse
the situation. Ultimately, a
nobleman named Sosthenes rallied the Macedonians, gathered forces and began the
fight against the invaders. His determination buckled the Galatians, who in any
case gathered enough spoils, they evacuated Macedonia. (Ioust. CCT Vorts. D.V.7, Paus. CH.19.7)
The rich booty that Volgios availed, didn't leave the other chief, Vrennos, unimpressed. He then managed to associate Akichorius and other Gallic
chieftains, claiming that
the riches of Greece are fabulous and that the Greeks are
debilitated and vulnerable. Thus, he gathered a huge horde, which
the ancient authors estimate at over[3] 200
thousand, without the civilian population that was following.
The barbarian
hordes were launched early in the spring of 278 BC. A portion of
20.000 men under Leonnorio and Loutario was detached and headed for the land of Dardanians,
while the others continued to Macedonia. The Sosthenes resisted again and it
seems that finally compelled the Galatians to seek new lands. The Vrennos then
decided to move to Delphi, having heard a lot
about their riches. So the terrible Celts descended on Thessaly
without major losses. (Vortselas, D.V.7)
Concentration of
Greek army - Arrival of the Galatians
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hen they heard this news, the hearts of the Greeks were filled of fear, but also and determination. Already they
knew about the ills that were suffered the Macedonians, Thracians, Peonians,
and so many others from the wild raiders. Furthermore were reaching other news
for atrocities against Thessalians. Faced with the risk of annihilation stepped
aside temporarily their differences and rallied. Pausanias (CH.19.12) describes characteristically that “so there was a common mood,
in the cities and in each man separately,
or to defeat or
perish”.
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| The ancient coastline of the Gulf Maliakos |
As an ideal location for addressing of numerous Celtic
hordes was deemed the
narrow of Thermopylae. From the time of Medes, this narrowed
passage was enlarged due to silting of the river Sperchios. Nevertheless he
still had low amplitude[4] and was
offered for defensive struggle. The Greek forces
gathered at this point. The Boeotians sent 10.000 hoplites and 500 cavalrymen with leaders Kephisodotos, Thearidas, Diogenes and Lyssandros, the Phocians 3.000 pedestrians and 500 cavalrymen under Kritoboulos and Antiochus, the Locrians - opposite of the island Atalanti – they sent 700 men under Meidias, and the Megarians 400 hoplites under the leadership of Hipponicus. The dynamic present they stated
the Aetolians with more than 7.000 hoplites, 790 light infantry and
with unspecified number of cavalry, with the generals Polyarchy, Polyfronas and
Lakratis. The
Athenians, to whom they commissioned the captaincy - as a result of historical
glory and prestige - have provided 1.000 pedestrians, 500 cavalrymen and all
the combative triremes, with quarterback Kallipos, son of Moirokles. Finally,
the king of Macedonia, Antigonus Gonatas[5] assisted
with a body of 500 mercenaries under Aristodemos, while the Seleucid king of
Syria Antiochus I also sent 500 men that had Telesarchos as a chief (Pausanias CH.20.3-5). The Peloponnesians they thought of
shortsighted and remained uninvolved, were
fortified behind the walls of the Isthmus
of Corinth, based on
the fact that the Galatians did not have navy.
When the
Greeks were informed that the Galatians had arrived in Magnesia and Fthiotis,
they sent all their cavalry and a snippet 1000 light armed to prevent them to
pass the river Sperchius. This force destroyed the bridges over the river and encamped near the
banks of the river. But Vrennos, although barbarous, was an experienced in war and resourceful strategically. Thus,
reaching to Spercheus
River, he resorted to the
following trick to relieved of the Greek force opposite. He formed an excerpt of 10.000 men, the tallest men in his army, who were all good swimmers. This power sent to cross the river near to his estuaries, where it widens more to form swampy areas, away from the damaged bridges. The Galatians
passed from that point on silently, using the great Gallic
shields as rafts,
while the taller men crossed the standing water
walking. The Greek force, just became
aware of this movement, he left and was joined again with the rest of the army at
Thermopylae. (Pausanias, X, 20, 6-8)
Conflicts at Thermopylae
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rennos unhindered now he obliged the
residents of the wider area to rebuild the bridges. They obeyed without delay,
as well as they feared and additionally they wanted to rid from the blood
thirsty barbarians who ravaged their land. Passing the Spercheus the Celts they moved to
Heraclea[6], setting fire, by plundering and by killing those who they were found in the fields. But they not attempted to attack against
the city, which had a strong wall
and a resolute garrison from
locals and Aitolians. From defectors
were informed that the main army of the Greeks
was located at Thermopylae. So, Vrennos, strategically thinking, he left Heraclea and
he moved for conquest
of the Straits. (Pausanias CH.20.9, Vortselas D.V.7)
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| Celts horsemen |
The next day when the sun rose, the Gaul
leader sure of himself [7], he ordered the
attack. The savages Celts
charged down with
fury and excess courage, without maintaining any consistency in
their array. As warriors were terrible, most of them were tall,
while Pausanias reports that they not were losing their momentum and their
irrational fury, or when they were accepting many bad traumas from swords and
hatchets. If they had
been knocked by arrows or javelins, were pulling out from the open their wounds
and they were throwing against the Greeks or they were holding and they were
using them, as long as they were still alive. Unlike the Greeks were slightly armored. Most were fighting naked while
their shields, though larger, was not as resistant as in Greeks. The Greeks were waiting silent and
were lined up with class, which they maintained throughout the duration of the
battle. Behind the
line of phalanx of the hoplites were located spearmen, archers and slingshots-men
that constantly were contesting against the enemies. The cavalry of both sides did not
take part in the battle, not only
because of narrowness of space, but
also because the ground is rocky, while the
creeks and the torrents make it slippery at many points. Amidst all these regularly disadvantages of the
Galatians was added and
that the Athenian ships approached the point
of collision, sailing
in muddy waters,
something very bold and dangerous. From there case
affected the enemies with archers and any other
weapons they had.
The situation had
become quite unfavorable for the Galatians,
as they was crammed
into a narrow space and they could not fight effectively, and had been
three times and four
times more losses than those who they had caused. Their leaders gave the signal
of retreat. The order was executed in complete
confusion and disorder, with many other are trampled and lost in muddy swamps, significantly increasing the losses.
(Pausanias, X, 21,1-4)
On that day, the Athenians showed the greatest bravery from the Greeks. Particularly was
distinguished the young Athenian Kydias, who
for the first time took
part in a battle, which was destined to be his last, as well as he was killed. After the end of battle, the Hellenes they buried their dead and skyleysan[8] the corpses of enemies. In contrast, the Galatians they did not send
even a herald to ask for permission to bury their dead, being indifferent if remain
unburied or if
they become food for animals that
eat corpses. Pausanias considers that the Galatians in this way they want to
intimidate their enemies and that they do not
feel pity for the dead. The
Greek losses in the battle testified in 40 men, while the Galatians were not
identified exactly as well as many men were lost in the mire. (Pausanias CH, 21, 4-6)
Seven days
later, a Galatian force has attempted to go up on the mountain Oiti, from a
narrow path that was in the surrounding area. The aim was to outflank the
positions of the Greeks, and to plunder the temple
of Athena, which was located in the
mountain above Heraclea
and which was rich in votive offerings. The safekeeping of the passage was assigned to Phocians and to the soldiers
of Telesarchos. In the conflict that was followed the Galatians were
intercepted, at the cost of the life of Telesarchos, who he was characterized
as “a man with the greater willingness than anyone else, for the defense of the
Greeks”.
Anti-distraction of Galatians -
Destruction of Kallion
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hile the remaining Celts leaders
watched amazed the situation who had reached an impasse, Vrennos was thinking
how could distract the Aetolians from the Greek array. He knew that - from the Greeks - were the most militant worthy and their withdrawal would weaken significantly the defense of Thermopylae. So, he formed a force of 40.000 pedestrians and about 800 horsemen with
chiefs Orestorio and Komvouti, entrusting them to intrude on Aetolia
(Pausanias CH, 22, 2). This excerpt
passed again Spercheus River northwards, so that the Greeks at Thermopylae to not perceive their true direction. Proceeding to
Ypati, they turned south and after a few days march they arrived to Kallion[9].
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Η Αιτωλία καθισμένη
σε γαλατικές
ασπίδες (νόμισμα
Αιτωλών) |
The ancient Kallion (or Kallipolis) was an important Aetolian city. It was built
next to Velouchovo[10], a newest
village, in a short distance northwest of Lidoriki. There was center Aetolic
tribe of Ofioneon (or Ofieon) and the 4th BC century was a member of the
Aetolian League. He had
significant strategic importance because was located in the passage of the
valley upper Dafnos and in the passage of the “Narrow”, in the only direct road
from the valley of the river Sperchios in the interior of Aetolia. Today the waters
of the artificial lake in
the river Mornos cover the area
where it was built the ancient city. An exception
is the site of the ancient acropolis located in the same position with the
so-called “castle
of Velouchovo” just on
the hill, next to the passage of the “Narrow”.
The furious Galatians attacked unexpectedly in the Kallion and they committed horrific crimes. Pausanias describes in an eloquent manner: «… they
slaughtered every male humans, and the elders and the infants still breastfed,
while those infants who had been done thicker with milk, the Galatians killed
them, drank their blood and ate the meat. The women ... rushed o kill
themselves,
as the town was conquered. Those found them alive, they have brought in any kind of debasement using unusual violence. Those women who they could
find the swords of the Galatians commit suicide with them, the others not long
in finding the fatal from starvation and insomnia, why the lewd barbarians they
did bad acts continuously, the one after another, and they copulating with women who were dieing and
with those women who they were already dead”. (CH, 22, 3-4)
It is not
excluded, the
incidences of cannibalism to
be consequence of the
difficult - nutritional
- situation in which the invaders had come. John Vortselas
cites that “the around (of Thermopylae) country had been ravaged deft ...”, while the abhorrent behavior shows a
tactical expediency, since
the main objective of Vrennos was reached. The Aetolians who were at Thermopylae,
when were informed the fact by messengers
they departed immediately
thirsty for revenge and determined to save their other cities. Back in Aetolia,
men who were in
fighting age were enlisted, while the
old men took up arms, as well as the fever of the preparations and the seriousness
of the situation drifted them away. In the
preparation they took part even women
since their desire for revenge was bigger than of men. (Pausanias CH.22.5-6)
The Return of
the Aetolians - Revenge in «Kokkalia»
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he excerpt of Orestorios and Komvouti ransacked the houses of Kallion and by delivering
the city in flames, took the way back following the same route. Force Achaean
hoplites from Patras[11], who
eventually wins the Galatians on their leaving and rushed to collide with them. But it suffered enough losses due to the militancy of the Celts and
because of their significant numerical
disadvantage, and by the lack of the main army of the Aetolians. However they - as it seems - lost no time and
quickly by returning
they occupied some strategic passages. (Pausanias CH.22.6, Vortselas D.V.7)
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| Monument in "Kokkalia" |
The outraged Aetolians, with continuous attacks, were launched immediately to harass the invaders. Were placed in inaccessible places along the route that the invaders were following. From there they were throwing spears, arrows and stones with great accuracy due of the great number and the inadequate shielding of the enemies. When the Galatians persecuting them, then were fleeing, and were returning once the stalking was stopping. The excerpt of Celts seems that forced to make long detours to find a safer passageway to the valley of river Sperchios. Moving on, they arrived in location, what is known today as “Kokkalia”. This point is located in the yoke that joins the mountain Oxia (Beech) with the mountain Tymfristos (or Veloychi), northeast of the village Krikello. According to tradition, many Galatians were killed[12] there, so a few years later the land was white from their bones. It is said that up to nowadays the agricultural work reveal bones, metal helmets and weaponry. At this point there is a monument of the battle with an inscription. “Kokkalia” was the informal revenge for the destruction of Kallion, while from the initial body of 40.000 men fewer than half was returned to Thermopylae. (Pausanias CH.22.7)
Ephialtes
relives - Disengagement of the Greeks, march of Galatians to Delphi
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evertheless the main army of Celts
has remained before Thermopylae. From the
stagnant situation, the way out for Vrennos they showed the ... residents of Heraclea and Ainianes.
They undertook to drive him to the backs of Greeks following the path Anopaia,
just as had done Ephialtes in the years of the Medes. Probably, they made like that, not
from anti-Greek mood, but to get rid from the barbarians who were desolating
their land. Vrennos overjoyed he left his position in Akichorio, with explicit
orders to attack when they will encircle the Greeks. He also created a body of
40.000 men, selected by him, with whom he will go up on Anopaia path. That day
in Oeti was prevailing dense fog which was hiding even the sun, significantly
reducing the visibility of Phocians, who were guarding the path. Those, did not
realize the Galatians, only when were approached enough. In the onslaught of
barbarians who was followed the Phocians defended bravely, but eventually they
were forced to retreat. But they took care to inform
the Greeks at Thermopylae
for this development, before the excerpt of
Vrennos encircle them. Then the Athenians with
their triremes rushed to glean the Greeks, before being trapped. So the
Greek army was disbanded and everyone went for
defense of his motherland. (Pausanias CH.22.8-12)
Conquering with this way the Straits of Thermopylae, Vrennos was initiated immediately to Delphi, without even waiting Akichorio. The second left a part of the army to guard the camp in Heraclea and was launched to forestall Vrennos. When they heard
about the onward march of the Celts,
the inhabitants of Delphi were terrified and they took
refuge to the oracle. For defense of Delphi were quick Phocians from all
cities, 400 soldiers Locrians from Amphissa, while from the Aetolians
initially they came few, but later arrived
a force 1.200 men
under Philomilos. The main and best forces of the Aetolians conducted sabotage match, by
making frequent attacks against the rearguard and luggage of Akichorios (Pausanias CH.22.13). Consequently, he was obliged to progressing
very slowly, a fact which
had decisive consequences subsequently.
Vrennos reaching with his power at Delphi was proposed to officers and soldiers to encamp a few days in the plain, as the course was tedious. The Heads
Emanos and Thessaloros were in favor of direct attack, not to give time to the
Greeks to organize. But the soldiers had dissipated in the outdoors and they
plundered the abandoned villages and fields by finding many foods. By
circumventing any sense of discipline the soldiers wandering drunk and they
refused to obey to the injunctions of superiors. This evolution gave precious
time to the Greeks in order to better organize and gather more forces. (Ioust. XXIV)
Defeat of the
Galatians at Delphi - Catastrophic retreat
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he next day, Vrennos spoke to his
soldiers[13] before it
can order the attack. He showed them the golden statues and magnificent
buildings of Delphi and he urged them to rush
acquire them, by arousing professed their predatory mood. Then, the
barbarians influenced by the intoxication of the previous day still, attacked
massively, without coordinated manner, but with tremendous momentum. The Greeks were opposed defense with
valence, repulsing and killing those who they attempted to climb to the
mountain top, but was subsisting themselves enough losses (Ioust. CCT). The ancient sources
quote intense and the mythological element as well as - as
it is said - there was and “divine intervention” with earthquakes, lightning and thunderbolts, and there are reports for appearance of supernatural beings like of
heroes Yperochos, Laodokos, Pyrrhus and Fylakos. From those Phocians who fell, Aleximachos was distinguished particularly. (Pausanias CH.23.1-3)
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| Dieing Gaul (Capitolion Museum, Rome) |
The darkness that fell has reserved the terror and havoc on the persecuted most invaders. Some soldiers were occupied by paranoia and panicky
and they claimed that they were
listening clatter of cavalry
and onslaught of enemies.
The confusion was broadcasted rapidly throughout the Gaulish camp. Within chaos the men had taken up
arms and they began to kill each other in the dark. Incapable to recognize who
was their adjacent, nor from weapons, nor by the voice actually they believed
that the Greeks attacked. The local
residents, who were guarding their animals in the surrounding fields, they
reported the fact to the Greeks. So then, the Phocians armed with courage were
conducting most daring attacks. Were guarding better their
settlements and were resisting strongly, when the Galatians were attempting
invasions in search of food and other necessary. Soon there was a lack of food
in the hostile army. The total
losses in the campaign in Phocis were estimated
to 6.000 from the battles, 10.000 from the nighttime confusion and also 10.000
from hunger and cold. (Pausanias
CH.23.7-10)
The Athenians
when were informed by their envoys, the developments and the plight that
occurred to the invaders, they sent army to assist in the persecution.
Traversing Boeotia was joined with the Boeotian forces. By following the Galatians retreating, were setting up ambushes in narrow passages and were attacking in their rearguard, killing those who they were delaying. The other one Galatian
leader Akichorios succeeded to unite his power with that of Vrennos in an
attempt to cover his retreat. Admitting most ceaselessly attacks by
the Aetolians and with terrible losses they arrived at camp of Heraclea. Vrennos injured seriously and fearing the rage and the shame of his
compatriots for their calamities that them swept away, killed himself with his
sword, after he got drunk with unmixed wine. (Pausanias CH.23.12, Diod.22.9)
Epilogue
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oncluding the narrative of this dramatic story, to mention that the Galatians - on their leaving - attempted to cross the river Spercheus. But were faced Malieis and
Thessalians who were pooled, who were thirsting for revenge and brought about
another heavy blow (Pausanias CH.23.14). Most ancient sources testify that
nobody enemy did not survive, though that is probably not true. It is important that the Greeks were made a real feat comparable to that
against the Medes, and even under very clearly more difficult conditions. You bold
enough to say that the victorious outcome of
this war is a further proof that the Greeks thrive in the difficulties.
With regard
to the Galatians, they let indelible their stigma in the land of Central Greece
with their own bones in the homonymous locality. The air of Mount Tymfristos
carries even snippets of the terrifying screams, a true nemesis from those who
massacred in Kallion.
George K. Balomenos
SOURCES
- Pausanias: “Periegesis in Greece” Ekdotiki of Athens, 1981.
- Vortselas : “FTHIOTIS”, editions KASTALIA, 1973.
- Ioustinos: “Book Called Historical”, Anemi, Digital Library of Modern Greek Studies.
- Alex. Paradisi: “Forts and castles of Greece”, P. Efstathiades, 1976, Athens.
- Magazine “World War History”, Issue 11, 2006, article “Gauls in Greece”.
- Diodorus Sikeliotis: “Historical Library”, source from the Internet.
- http://en.wikipedia.org/
- https://el.wikipedia.org/
- http://www.culture.gr/ (Website Ministry of Culture and Sport of Greece)
FOOTNOTES
[1] After the battle of
Corupedium (281 BC) where for the last time
they clashed former generals of Alexander (Successors) begins the
season of Epigonoi (i.e.
descendants of the Successors).
[2] Early in the spring of 279 BC
(Pausanias “Boeotika-Fokika”, Ekdotike Athenon,
1981, pp. 369, footnote
4.)
[3] Pausanias
mentions 152.000 pedestrians
and 22.400 horsemen
(the total number of horsemen was triple including the auxiliaries) while Ioustinos
mentions 15.0000
pedestrians and 15.000 horsemen.
[4] The ancient coastline is calculated on approximately
the height the Old National Road Athens-Lamia.
[5] Antigonus came into conflict with
Sosthenes, but was defeated and eventually ascended to the throne after the
death of Sosthenes, two years later. (http://el.wikipedia.org/
Lemma: Sosthenes of Macedonia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon
)
[6] The ancient Heraclea
was situated south of Lamia, the
first hills of Mount Oiti. Some parts of the walls
they seem, following the old national road to village
Bralos.
[7] In Pausanias makes impression that Vrennos not
consulted a clairvoyant or even someone augur.
(CH.21.1)
[9] Pausanias: “Periegesis in Greece”, Ekdotiki of Athens, “Boeotius-Fokika”,
1981, pp. 376, note 4.
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